Grazing is the basic measure of land management both at home and abroad,and the grazing land covers more than a half of the global terrestrial sphere. Restrained by the traditional agrarian culture,there are many misunderstandings of grazing management system in China and it was regarded as a main cause for ecological deterioration,poverty and cultural retardation in pastoral areas so prohibition of grazing was a popular phenomenon. Actually,the current problems of China’s grassland are not originated in grazing itself,but the misconception and deficiencies in grazing management,which breaks up the relationships among human beings,grassland and livestock. Historical evidences have witnessed the great contribution made by grazing to mankind. With technological and social development grazing has experienced three stages: the primary nomadic,the transformation grazing and the modern grazing,and some Western countries have completed the modern transformation of grazing system in the 1930s. The core of modernization of grazing model is the rotational grazing based on a system unit of inhabitants,grassland and livestock. The rotational grazing is an open agricultural technical system with various sub-models to adapt to various agricultural systems and to meet the requirements of ecology and production,so it is significant progress of grassland grazing management. To secure the dual ecological and the economic benefits of grassland ecosystem,China’s animal husbandry should accelerate its modern transformation in terms of grazing and grassland management. It is the necessary approach to modernize its animal husbandry as well as to build up an essence in its modern agriculture.

放牧是国内外普遍运用的土地管理的基本手段,至今全球陆地大约半数以上处于放牧管理之下。但受传统农耕文化的影响,我国当前对放牧管理系统存在很多误解,尤其是把草原的生态恶化、牧区贫困、文化落后都归罪于草原放牧,导致禁牧盛行。从放牧的基本内涵看,当前我国草原所面临的问题,不在放牧本身,而是对放牧认识的不足和放牧管理的缺陷,割裂了人居-草地-畜群之间的联系。从历史角度看,放牧做出了巨大贡献。而随着社会和科技的进步,放牧历经原始游牧期、放牧转型期与放牧现代化时期三阶段。西方发达国家在20世纪30年代就实现了放牧的现代化转型。畜牧业现代化的核心是以人居-草地-畜群放牧系统单元为内核的划区轮牧。划区轮牧是一种开放的农业技术体系,具有多种方式,适应于不同的农业系统,可兼顾生态与生产的需求,是草地放牧管理的重大进步。为了实现草原生态系统的生态和经济双重效应,我国畜牧业应该尽快实现草原管理和放牧的现代化转型。这是我国草地畜牧业现代化的必经之路,也是现代农业的必要内涵。

摘　要： 草原文化遗传基因的载体是包含人居、草地和畜群三者共生的放牧系统单元，亦即人居、草地、家畜三者共生的．三位一体基本元素。放牧系统单元包舍两重结构。第一层是草地-草食动物（家畜）构成的牧食系统；第二层结构是在草畜系统之外，加入人为因子，扩大为人居-草地-家畜的共生体。放牧系统的驱动力是能量按照一定的“序”的运动模式．需要满足生存空间需求与营养源网络两方面条件。科学实验和生产实践证明，划区轮牧是保持放牧系统单元完整性的唯一途径，它把放牧的“序”覆盖全部草地面积和全部放牧持续时间，适用于不同的时空阈限。我国需克服对放牧的诸多认识误区．建立放牧系统单元的概念，采取保持放牧系统单元完整的划区轮牧是维系草原生态，传承草原文化的关键所在。

Grazing is the basis of nomadic culture and therefore, modern rotational grazing system is established in order to conserve and inherit the nomadic culture better. Human being, grassland and livestock are three basic components of nomadic culture, which could be integrated into a social ecosystem (grasslandlivestockpeople) through grazing. As the outcome of the social ecosystem, nomadic culture completely expresses the structure and function of the human beingoriented grassland ecosystem, which includes the pattern of production and living of nomadic nationalities, art form, ethnic nature, politics and military as well. Grazing has experienced different historical stages with the development of nomadic culture. Developed countries had finished the modification of grassland animal husbandry in the 1930s and the key approach was the rotational grazing accompanied with construction of settlements, waterdrunk points, fences, fodders and pastoral cooperatives association. This kind of grassland ecosystem with humanbeinggrasslandlivestock plays a key role in conservation and inheritance of nomadic culture.

放牧是草原文化的基本元素。保存与传承草原文化，就应以放牧为核心，建立现代轮牧制度。人、草原、家畜是草原文化的3个基本要素，通过放牧这一基本功能，将草原-家畜-人居耦合成一个自然社会生态系统。系统运行中产生草原文化。草原文化是以人为本的草原生态系统的结构和功能的总体现。其中包含了草原民族的生产和生活方式、艺术形式、民族性格等，并延伸到政治、军事行为。在草原文化的发展过程中，放牧经历了不同的历史阶段。20世纪30年代前后各生产先进国家都完成了草原畜牧业的现代化转型。其转型的主要内涵为以划区轮牧为核心，配合定居点、饮水点、围栏、饲草料、牧民合作社等系统建设，建成人-草地-家畜的草原生态系统，这是保持与传承草原文化的必要途径。

Pastoralists, pasture and livestock in arid and semi-arid pastoral area are closely related. It has important significance for pasture ecological protection and pastoralists’ livelihoods improvement to solve the influence of fragmentation brought by China’s grassland contract policy. It’s considered that pasture transfer is a market based instrument to solve the conflict among livestock, pasture and pastoralists after fragmentation. Taking a Gacha(village) located in the south of New Barag Right Banner, Hulunbeir as an example, this paper focused on the transformation of relationship among pastoralists, pasture and livestock, which was affected by grassland contract and pasture transfer. Through case study, we attempted to analysis pasture transfer’s impact on pasture ecology and pastoralists’production. Data was collected from household questionnaire survey and semi-structural interview, and interviewing stakeholders of the Gacha in July 2011. 16 households have been interviewed in the case, accounted for 26%of the total. Study shows that the resources in arid and semi-arid area are highly heterogeneous in space and time, the pastoralist in this area need flexible mobility to fulfill the livestock’s demand on both forage and external environment. Besides, flexible mobility can help avoid highly uncertain natural disasters. However, the grassland contract policy fragmented the resources. Fragmentation leads to less mobility of livestock and the conflict between the livestock demand and the pasture’s supply, which brings the contradiction between pasture ecology and the pastoralists’livelihoods in further. After the contract, pasture transfer can reconcile the conflict between livestock’s need and the pasture’s supply brought by grassland contract policy, which will alleviate the grazing pressure on pasture and improve pastoralists’livelihoods at a certain extent. However, there’re problems at the meantime. Due to lack of monitoring and short duration of leasehold, the grazing pressure is transferred within pasture, the transferred pasture maybe over used. For the poorer can’t engage in other industries, they can’t change the poor situation completely, which aggravates the polarization between the rich and the poor. In addition, after pasture transfer, the livestock movement is still short and fixed, making it difficult to respond to the uncertain risk of natural disasters and policy changes flexibly. In sum, pasture transfer can’t solve all the problems brought by pasture fragmentation, thus privatization still can’t effectively manage the pasture in arid and semi-arid areas in China. Though it has problems, pasture transfer is still an important management method in current situation. Several aspects should be noticed to alleviate its affect: 1) Avoiding the outsiders to enter; 2) Supporting cooperatives aiming at pasture integration; 3) Helping the poorer to change their poor situation.

干旱半干旱牧区社会生态系统人、草、畜三者紧密关联,草场承包政策阻碍了牲畜在较大空间范围内的移动,长期而言不但使草地生产力下降,也对牧民生产生活造成严重影响。草场流转被认为是草场承包之后,利用市场配置资源的优势,解决草畜矛盾、改善牧民生计的途径之一。作为一种市场手段,流转是否能解决草场承包带来的草原生态和牧民生计困境,对草原管理的发展方向有重要的参考意义。本文试图从牧区人、草、畜关系特征的角度,在案例地通过半结构式访谈和问卷调查搜集相关资料,深入剖析草场流转给牧民生产生活和草原生态带来的影响,探讨用市场方法整合草场、恢复牲畜移动存在的问题及背后的原因。研究表明,草场流转在一定程度上能协调草场承包到户后产生的牲畜对草场的需求与草场供给之间的矛盾,草场整体的放牧压力稍有缓解,牧民生计有所提高;但是却造成草场内部放牧压力转移、被流转草场过度利用,贫困户因无法转产而无法根本改善生计,贫富分化加剧的问题。此外,草场流转后组用草场的富户虽然移动距离有所增加,但是空间仍相对固定,牧户关系更加独立,仍然使其难以灵活应对自然灾害、政策变化等带来的风险。

In order to restore and protect the grassland ecological environment which had been degraded, China government has carried out extensive grassland ecological compensation system which including grazing restrictions, returning cropland to forestry and grass, rewards and compensation of grassland ecology protection, and so on. The degraded grassland has recovered and the height, coverage and hay yield of grassland has been improved after over ten years of grassland ecological compensation system application. The present paper summarized the impacts of grassland ecological compensation on farmers and herders as household is the fundamental unit of ecological compensation and their responses were closely related to the persistence of ecological compensation. The results showed that grassland ecological compensation had a positive impact on household income and agricultural structure. However, the experience was still in the immature stage. Grassland ecological compensation had following questions including unreasonable compensation period and rewards standard; outdate livestock production model and large funding gap; high risk of pen feeding; difficulty of surplus labor force shift; and lack of technical compensation. Following suggestions were proposed based on the above problems: establishing reasonable standards, broadening financing channels; improving the social security system, developing intensive animal husbandry, adding technical offset, and extending period of subsidy and developing follow-up industry.

草地生态补偿的目的是为了恢复和保护将要或者已经破坏了的草地生态环境,我国目前开展的大规模的草地生态补偿项目有退牧还草、退耕还草还林、草原生态保护补助奖励机制等。我国草地生态补偿开展十几年来,草地生态得以恢复,草群高度、植被盖度、干草产量方面都有所改善。而农牧户作为生态补偿客体的最基本单位,农牧户的响应与生态补偿可持续性息息相关。本文分析总结了草地生态补偿对农牧户的影响,结果表明,草地生态补偿对农牧户家庭经济和农牧产业结构产生了一定的正面影响,但目前实践工作还处于不成熟阶段。存在一些亟待解决的问题:1)补助标准和期限不合理;2)畜牧业生产方式落后,资金缺口大;3)舍饲风险大;4)剩余劳动力转移困难;5)缺乏技术补偿。根据存在的问题,提出以下建议:1)制定合理的补偿标准;2)拓宽融资渠道;3)完善社会保障制度;4)发展集约化畜牧业;5)增加技术补偿;6)延长补助期限,发展后续产业。

本文研究了人类顺应动物的采食特性和迁徙规律,顺应草食家畜与草 原资源的互动规律,形成符合生态规律的生计方式;研究探讨新中国成立以来放牧制度的主体格局如何由传统游牧方式逐步向定居游牧、定居移场放牧、定居划区轮 牧制度转型的历史变迁以及评估现行放牧技术和制度;研究传统游牧中的精华,即轮换使用草牧场和适度放牧技术与与现代科学的放牧技术有效地互补、对接,发挥 最大的生态、经济、社会、文化效益.

For this paper, preference as one of the basic concepts is described from its contexts and dimensions. Firstly, preference in generally is defined by foraging intensity without grazing pressure, and animal preference, having species-specific, i.e. endogenous genetic structure and developmental or physiological characters, also may refer to potential diet selectivity or foraging strategy. Second, based on foraging time-scale and habitat, two couples of preference dimension are put forward as continuous preference vs. instaneous preference, and absolute preference vs. relative preference. Continuous preference is characterized as a stable long-term foraging intensity under evolutionary experiences, but instaneous preference for a short-term foraging intensity for animals. Absolute preference is here defined by voluntary intake within the foraging habitat with one kind of food, and relative preference refers to those foraging habitats within two or multiple foods. We suggested that it is essential to further explore the contexts, significances, and measurement of animal preference, and their implications to foraging theory, co-adaptation and co-evolution between plant and herbivore, as well as grassland or grazing management practices.

本文对放牧生态学中的一个基本概念-偏食性的涵义（属性）与维度等进行了相对全面地释义；并对比分析了与之密切相关的适口性概念。偏食性是指动物基于自身特性以及动物体状态（包括遗传特征、发育阶段、生理与营养状态等），在不受食物供给量限制的条件下，对所在生境中食物（或植物种类）表现出的采食程度差异，它具有动物依赖性、动态性及相对性。偏食性的测度能够一定程度地反映动物的食性选择趋向，或者体现动物对生境中不同食物的潜在采食或消耗量；对偏食性的分析还有助于解释动物的食性选择策略，有益于揭示动物的采食行为规律。偏食性的维度包括持续偏食性与即时偏食性，以及绝对偏食性与相对偏食性。持续偏食性是动物经过长期进化形成的、对某种食物表现出较长时间的稳定的采食强度，即时偏食性是动物在某一时间对食物的采食强度，即动物偏食性的瞬时度量；绝对偏食性是动物在面对某种单一食物、于自由采食状态下所度量的对该食物的采食强度，绝对偏食性可以被认为是动物最基本的偏食性维度，而相对偏食性是指同时提供2种或多种食物背景下，所度量的动物对某种食物的自由选择采食强度。深刻认识、理解动物的偏食性概念及涵义，并将之有效地应用于实际的草地放牧管理之中，对于发展动物采食理论，动、植物协同适应及进化理论，有效实施草地家畜管理都具有突出的科学价值和实践意义。

简述了我国草原资源使用权流转现状,论述了我国草原资源使用权流转制度确立的必要性,在此基础上就促进草原使用权流转、完善制度从七方面进行了设计。

Based on the survey data of 160 herdsmen from the 9 cities in Inner Mongolia, the present study employed descriptive statistics and ordinal Logistic regression model to do an empirical research on herdsmen' satisfaction degree and the impact factors to the production subsidy policy of grassland ecological compensation and awarding policy. The results showed that the satisfaction degree of the herdsmen to the production subsidy policy was not very high which suggested that the policy still need some improvement. On the other side, the satisfaction degree of the herdsmen was mainly affected by the presence and value of grassland management staff, the amount and the convenience of production subsidies and the effect of subsidies on improving herdsmen’ income. According to the results of empirical analysis, targeted policy proposals were put forward in the end of the research.

本研究采用内蒙古地区9个市（盟）160户牧户的调研数据，运用描述统计方法和有序Logistic回归模型，针对草原生态补偿奖励政策中的生产性补贴政策，进行了牧民的满意度评价及其影响因素的实证研究。结果表明，牧民对于生产性补贴的评价并不十分满意，该政策仍存在一定的改善空间；牧民对该政策的满意度评价主要受到有无草地管护员、草地管护员的作用、生产性补贴总金额、生产性补贴领取是否方便和补贴对收入的作用等因素的影响，最后本研究依据实证分析结果提出了有针对性的政策建议。

摘　要： 调查分析蒙古国放牧模式的若干案例后,发现其利弊得失。蒙古国放牧模式的优点在于,能均衡利 用不同季节牧场,有利于草原的恢复,能保持＂五畜＂并存与草原生态多样性并存的耦合关系。依靠畜种和牧草的多样并存,既有利于饲草的均衡高效利用;又有助 于草原生态的自我恢复。其不足之处在于,草原的所有权制度有待改进,畜群布局不合理,游牧距离较短。对中国草原畜牧业而言,其启示作用在于：有助于推动产 权制度和放牧制度的多样化并存;有助于推动合作经营草牧场制度的创新;对抑制眼前畜种过分单一的不利格局,也有很好的借鉴价值。

The grassland is one of important agriculture natural resources. However, the grassland degraded seriously in China because of overgrazing. At the beginning of 21st century, enclosure was praised highly as a primary mean for grassland ecological restoration in west China. Effects of enclosure on the vegetation, soil and grassland ecosystem restoration were reviewed in this paper. It was concluded that the moderate grazing is necessary to restore degraded grassland and long-term enclosure is not as good as expected. According to the degree of grassland degradation in different regions, the enclosure should be flexibly combined with reasonable rotation grazing intensity and time to restore degraded grassland and get animal products simultaneously. It was suggested that the grassland ecological system will be sustainable and in good balance when grassland and animals are in win-win.

草地是我国重要的农业自然资源之一,但目前草地退化的现象十分严重,超载过牧是主要原因之一。本文就针对草地退化提出的围封禁牧措施对草地植被、土壤及草地生态系统恢复过程中的作用进行综述,发现适度放牧对草地恢复是必需的,但采取长期围封禁牧恢复与重建草地的做法不可取,围栏封育并非恢复退化草地的万全之计。建议在我国要因地制宜,根据草地的退化程度,采取合理的划区轮牧强度和放牧时间,与退化草地生态恢复的围封措施结合,以达到既能恢复退化草地,又可收获畜产品的双赢目的,实现草地生态系统持续平衡发展的目标。